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Central processing unit functions

Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an . Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each instruction is represented by a unique combination of, known as the machine language . While processing an instruction, the CPU decodes the opcode (via a ) into. Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an . Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each instruction is represented by a unique combination of, known as the machine language . While processing an instruction, the CPU decodes the opcode (via a ) into control signals, which orchestrate the behavior of the CPU. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes. The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a circuit within the CPU's processor known as the or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, us. A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor, or just processor, is the primary in a given . Its executes of a, such as, logic, controlling, and (I/O) operations. This role contrasts with that of external components, such as and I/O circuitry, and specialized such as (GPUs). The form,, and implementation of CPUs have changed over time, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the (ALU) that performs and, that supply to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a that orchestrates the fetching (from memory), decoding and execution (of instructions) by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers, and other components. Modern CPUs devote a lot of semiconductor area to and to increase performance and to to support and . Most modern CPUs are implemented on (IC), with one or more CPUs on a single IC chip. Microprocessor chips with multiple CPUs are called (MCP). The individual physical CPUs, called processor cores, can also be to support CPU-level multithreading. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain, interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called or (SoC). Early computers such as the had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called "fixed-program computers". The "central processing unit" term has been in use since as early as 1955. Since the term "CPU" is generally defined as a device for (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the . The idea of a stored-program computer had already been present in the design of and 's, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician distributed a paper entitled . It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC was not the first stored-program computer; the, which was a small-scale experimental stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer. However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete and, and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of . Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys. While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of . Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the . After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the . If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the "", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontrollers). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline. Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called "jumps" and facilitate program behavior like, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of . In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a . These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, in such processors a "compare" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow. Fetch involves retrieving an (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by the (PC; called the "instruction pointer" in ), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence. Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below). The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by circuitry known as the instruction decoder, the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU. The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a "field") within the instruction, called the, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location o. Most modern CPUs have to support operating systems and virtualization. can use virtualization to provide a virtual central processing unit (vCPU) for separate users; vCPU is not to be confused with a (VPS). A host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating. When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a . In some systems, it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster. Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned into with fine .

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